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Grant support

The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support received from the Spanish government AEI under Grant No. PID2020-115508RB-C22 (A3M) . The authors are also grateful to URJC for its support of the Cold-SAM project.

Analysis of institutional authors

Garrido Maneiro, Miguel ángelAuthorAlonso, LCorresponding AuthorGarrido, MaAuthorPoza, PAuthor

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September 27, 2022
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An optimisation method for the cold-spray process: On the nozzle geometry

Publicated to:Materials & Design. 214 (110387): 110387- - 2022-02-01 214(110387), DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2022.110387

Authors: Alonso, L; Garrido, M A; Poza, P

Affiliations

Rey Juan Carlos Univ, Dept Chem Technol Energy & Mech, C Tulipan Sn, Mostoles 28933, Spain - Author

Abstract

Currently, the cold-spray process, or simply cold spray, is an extensively used technique in coating appli-cations. The low temperature of the deposition process is the distinctive feature that makes it suitable for many additive manufacturing activities such as repair and restoration of damaged components. The reli-ability of the coatings is strongly dependent on the velocity of the powder during its impact on the target surface. Spraying conditions such as the pressure and temperature of the carrier gas and the geometry of the nozzle control the acceleration of the powder particles. Consequently, there is an increasing interest in the optimisation of nozzle geometry so as to maximise the acceleration of the particles through the nozzle path that they follow. In contrast with various extant approaches to achieve this aim (finite ele-ment modelling, experimental approach, and analytical methods), an alternative model based on the one-dimensional isentropic theory that accounts for the dynamics of the dilute two-phase flow was developed in this study. First, an analysis of the common hypotheses used to obtain the equation of motion of the particle was carried out. Subsequently, with the new insights revealed from the previous analysis, a new theoretical model for the optimisation of the divergent part of the nozzle was performed considering a geometric angle restriction. This model is based on the numerical integration of the equa-tion of motion of the particle, ensuring the maximisation of the particle drag force by means of the Lagrange multiplier method. Once the analytical model is formulated, a set of curves describing the opti-mal geometric parameters for different conditions is obtained. Moreover, some optimal geometries are presented demonstrating the low influence of the angle restriction. Additionally, the inversely propor-tional relationship between stagnation pressure and temperature is revealed. (c) 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords

Analytical modellingAnalytical modelsCoating applicationCold sprayCold spray processConditionDragEquation of motionEquations of motionFlowGas dynamic-sprayGeometryGun nozzleLagrange multipliersLows-temperaturesNozzle geometriesNozzle geometryNumerical methodsOptimal-designOptimisationOptimisationsOptimization methodParticle-velocityPressure and temperatureSpray nozzlesTemperatureTwo phase flow

Quality index

Bibliometric impact. Analysis of the contribution and dissemination channel

The work has been published in the journal Materials & Design due to its progression and the good impact it has achieved in recent years, according to the agency WoS (JCR), it has become a reference in its field. In the year of publication of the work, 2022, it was in position 65/344, thus managing to position itself as a Q1 (Primer Cuartil), in the category Materials Science, Multidisciplinary.

From a relative perspective, and based on the normalized impact indicator calculated from World Citations provided by WoS (ESI, Clarivate), it yields a value for the citation normalization relative to the expected citation rate of: 1.02. This indicates that, compared to works in the same discipline and in the same year of publication, it ranks as a work cited above average. (source consulted: ESI Nov 14, 2024)

This information is reinforced by other indicators of the same type, which, although dynamic over time and dependent on the set of average global citations at the time of their calculation, consistently position the work at some point among the top 50% most cited in its field:

  • Weighted Average of Normalized Impact by the Scopus agency: 1.26 (source consulted: FECYT Feb 2024)
  • Field Citation Ratio (FCR) from Dimensions: 4.81 (source consulted: Dimensions Jul 2025)

Specifically, and according to different indexing agencies, this work has accumulated citations as of 2025-07-12, the following number of citations:

  • WoS: 14
  • Scopus: 16

Impact and social visibility

From the perspective of influence or social adoption, and based on metrics associated with mentions and interactions provided by agencies specializing in calculating the so-called "Alternative or Social Metrics," we can highlight as of 2025-07-12:

  • The use, from an academic perspective evidenced by the Altmetric agency indicator referring to aggregations made by the personal bibliographic manager Mendeley, gives us a total of: 47.
  • The use of this contribution in bookmarks, code forks, additions to favorite lists for recurrent reading, as well as general views, indicates that someone is using the publication as a basis for their current work. This may be a notable indicator of future more formal and academic citations. This claim is supported by the result of the "Capture" indicator, which yields a total of: 54 (PlumX).

With a more dissemination-oriented intent and targeting more general audiences, we can observe other more global scores such as:

  • The Total Score from Altmetric: 1.
  • The number of mentions on the social network X (formerly Twitter): 1 (Altmetric).

It is essential to present evidence supporting full alignment with institutional principles and guidelines on Open Science and the Conservation and Dissemination of Intellectual Heritage. A clear example of this is:

  • The work has been submitted to a journal whose editorial policy allows open Open Access publication.

Leadership analysis of institutional authors

There is a significant leadership presence as some of the institution’s authors appear as the first or last signer, detailed as follows: First Author (Alonso San José, Luis) and Last Author (Poza Gómez, Pedro Alberto).

the author responsible for correspondence tasks has been Alonso San José, Luis.